ISSN 2477-1686
Vol. 12 No. 64 Agustus 2026
Parenting While Wounded: The Invisible Influence of Adverse Childhood Experiences on Raising Children
Oleh:
Arifatul Bahirah
Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Esa Unggul &
Indonesian Psychology Association, Banten Region (HIMPSI Banten)
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are a public health issue that is gaining increasing attention due to their long-term impact on an individual's physical, mental, and social functioning throughout the lifespan. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are traumatic experiences experienced by individuals during the first 18 years of life, encompassing several categories: physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, neglect, and family dysfunction such as divorce and domestic violence (Felitti et al., 1998). In Indonesia, the high prevalence of traumatic childhood experiences, which are included in the ACEs component, is reflected in various national data. The results of the 2024 Child and Adolescent Life Experience Survey (SNPHAR) indicate that approximately 50.78% of children aged 13-17 have experienced at least one form of violence throughout their lives, whether physical, emotional, or sexual (Kemen PPPA, 2025). Furthermore, a recent study of the Indonesian adult population by Arulsamy et al. (2025) using the WHO Adverse Childhood Experiences International Questionnaire (ACE-IQ) found that 79.5% of respondents had experienced at least one type of ACE, with a composition of 38.2% experiencing 1 type of ACE, 22% experiencing two types of ACE, and 19.4% experiencing three or more ACEs.
Over the past two decades, studies have shown that the impact of ACEs does not stop when an individual experiences them but can continue into adulthood and affect the quality of parenting when the individual becomes a parent. This phenomenon is known as intergenerational transmission of trauma, a process where traumatic experiences in childhood influence parenting patterns, parent-child relationships, and the psychological development of subsequent generations (Racine et al., 2023). One of the main mechanisms explaining the relationship between ACEs and parenting is a disruption in the formation of internal working models, as described in Attachment Theory. According to Bowlby (1988), experiences gained through relationships with primary caregivers shape mental representations of oneself and others. Children who grow up in environments characterized by threat, rejection, or uncertainty tend to develop insecure attachment patterns. These patterns then affect their ability to build relationships with their children when they become parents, where they may face challenges in establishing warm, responsive, and consistent relationships with their children.
In addition to affecting relationship patterns, ACEs are also associated with various emotional regulation difficulties in adulthood. Individuals with a history of ACEs are more susceptible to depression, anxiety, chronic stress, and post-traumatic stress disorder, which can reduce sensitivity to children's emotional needs (Hughes et al., 2017). In demanding parenting situations, limited emotional regulation can increase the likelihood that parents use harsh, reactive discipline patterns or, conversely, become less emotionally involved. As a result, the parent-child relationship becomes less secure and potentially increases the risk of behavioral and mental health problems in children.
Empirical findings also indicate that the impact of ACEs on parenting occurs through various psychological pathways. A systematic review by Rowell and Neal-Barnett (2021) found that a history of ACEs in parents was associated with lower emotional availability, increased use of inconsistent discipline, and an increased risk of psychopathology in children. These relationships were partially mediated by parental attachment quality, mental health, and emotion regulation skills. Furthermore, a meta-analysis by Racine et al. (2025) of 52 studies showed that ACEs in parents were significantly associated with increased child mental health problems, including internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Although the effect sizes were small to medium, the results were consistent across various family characteristics, suggesting that parental traumatic experiences are an important risk factor influencing child development across generations.
However, the relationship between ACEs and parenting is not deterministic. Not all individuals with a history of trauma will become less adaptive parents. The Developmental Psychopathology perspective emphasizes that individual development is the result of a dynamic interaction between risk and protective factors across the lifespan. Social support, healthy romantic relationships, positive adulthood experiences, and trauma-informed psychological interventions can increase resilience, enabling individuals to develop more responsive parenting patterns than those experienced in childhood (Cicchetti & Toth, 2009).
This concept is further reinforced by Zhang et al.'s (2023) Scoping Review, which concluded that the intergenerational transmission of ACEs is influenced by various mediators, such as parental mental health, the quality of the couple's relationship, parenting stress, and socioeconomic conditions. In other words, childhood experiences are not the sole determinant of parenting quality, but rather one factor that interacts with various biological, psychological, and social aspects throughout life.
The practical implications of these findings are significant for mental health services and parenting programs. Trauma-informed parenting approaches are increasingly recommended as a strategy to prevent the intergenerational transmission of trauma. This approach not only focuses on current parenting behaviors but also helps parents understand how their childhood experiences influence their emotional responses to their children. Interventions that integrate psychoeducation, improved emotion regulation, strengthened reflective functioning, and attachment-based therapy have been shown to potentially improve the quality of parent-child relationships and reduce the risk of recurrence of dysfunctional parenting patterns. Recent evidence also suggests that trauma-informed parenting interventions can help break the cycle of violence and maladaptive parenting in families with a history of ACEs.
Thus, ACEs are a crucial determinant of the parenting process, influencing attachment, emotional regulation, mental health, and parental sensitivity to children's needs. However, the presence of protective factors and appropriate psychological interventions suggests that the transmission of trauma between generations can be prevented. Therefore, identifying a history of ACEs in prospective parents should be part of promotive and preventive efforts in family mental health services. This approach is expected to not only improve parents' psychological well-being but also create a safe, responsive, and supportive parenting environment for optimal child development.
References
Arulsamy, K., Effendy, E., Mardhiyah, S., Amin, M. M., Husada, M. S., Camellia, V., Stona, A.-C., & Finkelstein, E. A. (2025). Prevalence and associations of adverse childhood experiences with anxiety and depressive symptoms in Indonesia. Frontiers in Public Health, 13, Article 1714676. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1714676
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. Basic Books.
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2009). The past achievements and future promises of developmental psychopathology: the coming of age of a discipline. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 50(1-2), 16–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01979.x
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8
Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., Hardcastle, K. A., Sethi, D., Butchart, A., Mikton, C., Jones, L., & Dunne, M. P. (2017). The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 2(8), e356–e366.
Kementerian Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindungan Anak. (2025). Ringkasan Survei Nasional Pengalaman Hidup Anak dan Remaja (SNPHAR) 2024. https://www.kemenpppa.go.id/show-pdf/dokumen/detail/ringkasan-snphar-2024
Racine, N., Deneault, A. A., Thiemann, R., Turgeon, J., Zhu, J., Cooke, J., & Madigan, S. (2025). Intergenerational transmission of parent adverse childhood experiences to child outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child abuse & neglect, 168(Pt 1), 106479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106479
Rowell, T., & Neal-Barnett, A. (2021). A Systematic Review of the Effect of Parental Adverse Childhood Experiences on Parenting and Child Psychopathology. Journal of child & adolescent trauma, 15(1), 167–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-021-00400-x
Zhang, L., Mersky, J. P., Gruber, A. M. H., & Kim, J. Y. (2023). Intergenerational Transmission of Parental Adverse Childhood Experiences and Children's Outcomes: A Scoping Review. Trauma, violence & abuse, 24(5), 3251–3264. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221126186
